Rousseau’s Theory of Education

Rousseau lobbies against an educational system that tries to teach children concepts and facts before such time, as they would make use of them. He believes that a child should not neglect those studies, which meet his present needs, in order to learn that which he may acquire in later years. He claims that experience and emotion are our real teachers, thereby reinforcing the theory that a child should not be educated in matters which are not pertinent to their current station in life. He contends that a child should â€Å"remain in complete ignorance of those ideas which are beyond his grasp† (p686). In essence, Rousseau argues that the healthy spontaneous impulses of children were being repressed by the adult demands for emotional restraint, intellectual precision and social conformity as abdicated by the social and educational practices of his time. Rousseau constructs a theory of education, starting with the influence of the child's natural environment, which should prevail over the influence of society and social institutions. Rousseau advocates allowing children to grow and develop naturally, in direct opposition to the prevailing methods of teaching. Children should be encouraged to develop their faculties through experience. This forms the basis for his fundamental principle of education. Rousseau argues that to be of use to a child, a concept must be relevant to his age. Rousseau promotes involving the student in hands-on learning experiences, as opposed to the more traditional methods of instruction. Children pay little heed to verbal explanation, nor do they remember them in his opinion. He stresses the importance of discovery as a learning tool. Ideas that seem difficult at the onset become less daunting when introduced using a hands-on approach. Simply stated, he proposes to teach his pupil through â€Å"doing†, using words only as a final recourse. I don†t think Rousseau†s plan appealed to the peasants and urban workers in the 18th century. These people were hard workers who would have their children working to feed the family rather than wandering about the countryside learning. If their children had to be schooled, they most likely would have preferred they were subjected to the discipline provided by formal schools in towns and villages which were beginning to appear. Not only did these schools provide a more Christianity based education but kept the children busy and out of the parents way. The people of this time were very focused on discipline and control of their children, allowing the child to explore and learn on their own was the opposite of traditional treatment of children at this time. â€Å"Spare the rod and spoil the child† was a catch phrase of the 18th century and was taken quite literally. Any indications of an independent nature in a child were beaten out them and asking questions was often viewed as a challenge to authority and children were expected to accept all knowledge provided them on faith which was again the opposite of Rousseau†s plan. Since Rousseau†s plan was focused on education based on scientific principles it would go against many of their hardened Christian beliefs about how the world worked. The enlightenment may have been a big influence to Rousseau, but the peasants and urban workers of the 18th century were not particularly interested. For Rousseau to be properly understood we must examine his revolutionary ideas in terms of his relationship to the 18th century enlightenment. During this time a great premium was placed on the discovery of truth through the observation of nature, rather than through the study of authoritative sources, such as Aristotle and the Bible. Rousseau shared the enlightened view that society had perverted natural man, the â€Å"noble savage† who lived harmoniously with nature, free from selfish want, possessiveness and jealousy. One main feature of the enlightenment was that nothing was accepted on faith or face value and he expected no less from his students, he would demonstrate his teachings and not expect them to accept just a verbal description. Rousseau stressed that feeling and sentiment were two very important factors in the motivation of humankind. He emphasizes the need to live and develop in conformity with Nature. The child must be raised in a rural rather than an urban environment, so that he may develop in continuity with nature rather than in opposition to it. A child†s character will mature in harmony with nature if that child†s natural curiosity is allowed to develop unhindered by the corruption of society. All of Rousseau†s educational theories had roots in the enlightenment of the 18th century.

The mental, physical and psychological impacts on advertising in children

The mental, physical and psychological impacts on advertising in children Introduction The act of advertising to children involves the employment of aspects that positively or negatively affect children. The practice has not always been regulated by legislation but over the last couple of years, and after much research on the topic, many nations now regulate the practice of advertising to children with numerous laws.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The mental, physical and psychological impacts on advertising in children specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this research, we are going to attempt to widen the scope on the impacts that advertisement has had on children and how to protect as well as educate them. The hypothesis developed for this paper states that advertisements aimed at children do not only affect the short term choices but also affect their future livelihoods in the dietary and nutritional choices they make.. The major cause for concern for various organizations has mainly centered on the marketing of consumer goods that mainly involve foods and toys. The 57th World Health Assembly that was held in the year 2004 was instrumental in endorsing regulations in the Strategy for Diet, Physical Activity and Health (DPAS). The major aim of this resolution was to try and curb what was termed as obesity and other chronic diseases that arise from unhealthy eating habits and that are caused by the propagation of those foods in the minds of the end consumers who consist of children. The World Health Organization gave governments in conjunction with consumer groups the right to ensure that any messages that are deemed negative and contrary to the recommended dietary practices and proven physical activity should be done away with in favor of those that are positive. In the same year, there was a report by Hawkes (2006) that asserted that there were stringent regulations aimed at curbing certain forms of advertisement food products to children. Although the a ctions of the relevant government arms, lobby groups and even regulators have been lauded by many authors, there appear to be gaps that if not addressed could reverse the gains that have already been made. Key among them is the fact that rules and regulations brought forth have been centered mostly on countries considered to be high-income, leaving the low income countries without any meaningful regulations. There was also a glaring omission of all other forms of advertising since the regulations were focused on television advertisements.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Literature review According to a study done by the Institute of Medicine (2006) (IOM), by analyzing 123 published empirical studies, there was a general consensus that advertisements of food during programs intended for children has negative consequences to their eating habits and directly relates t o the high cases of obesity. This conclusion stems from other researches that have been done proving that children under the age of 12 do not comprehend the differences between programs and advertisements. This follows the ban that had been instituted by Sweden and that is considered by the United Kingdom to the same effect. The supporting fact here is that children consider all advertisement to be accurate and do not have the capability to understand the motive of the advertiser. There has been other literature that suggests that the advertisements that target children have a direct impact on their health. Harris (2008) states that there exists a clear disparity in the contributions by the departments of public health’s funding and the amount of funding that companies channel into the marketing of non-nutritious products. The assertion is that people develop brand loyalties at very tender ages which develop sub-consciously into adult life ultimately propelling the consumptio n of unhealthy foods and also the developments of unhealthy practices. Additionally, there is a focus on the traditional methods of advertising to children during the process of regulation. However, this trend has been termed as narrow minded as children nowadays have access to the internet, social networks, games and other digital devices where they are most susceptible to falling prey to such advertisements as compared to other media (Montgomery Chester, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The mental, physical and psychological impacts on advertising in children specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This research is aimed at analyzing the effects that advertisements have on the dietary habits of children and in particular on their health which encompasses mental, physical and psychological. Whereas the physical manifestations have been researched on in detail, there has been little that has been done on th e effects of all forms of advertisements on the psychological and mental health of children. In order to better understand the consequences of these advertisements in children, there is need to look at the parenting standards and the changing roles of parents, teachers and the society in general. There is also a need of defining the advertisements as the way that they are conveyed and phrased has also evolved over time. According to Jennifer (2006), a member of the American Psychological Association and a scholar studying the effects of advertising for many years, psychologists should be contracted to give parents and their children guidance on the role that advertisements play on the psychology of the child. She further asserts that the changing nature of the way advertisements have been formatted and then presented to the audience plays a major role in the way the message is received, interpreted and the eventual manifestations on the individual. Further, she notes that there has been increased advertisement in the schools themselves and ponders on whether the school administrators had given thought to the consequences of such adverts in the learning process of the children. The problem is so dire that not only do parents and children require the assistance of psychologists, but so do educators themselves who continue to be oblivious of the consequences that advertisements have and continue have even to some extent propagating the advertisements themselves. Methods Advertisements targeted at children have severe and long lasting negative consequences which affect their overall health and nutrition habits. There is need for evidence to back this hypothesis up so we will prove this in the research to be administered.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this research the survey method will be applied with the aim of gathering primary data that will be paramount to the conclusion and recommendations that will be put forth. Verbal results will be gathered and analyzed and will encompass children who are between ages 8 and 9 years old. The sample size will be 40 and the subjects will be children ages 8-9 from the North Clackamas School district. Their views will be collected by means of personal interviews administered after church on Sunday. The interview questions will be aimed at analyzing the information that the children believed following the commercials and what choices they would make about the products promoted. The major point of focus will be on the determination that children believe whatever advertisers say about a product. The other aim of this research will be to approve or disprove what previous researchers have asserted concerning the effects of advertising on the children. The effects that we will attempt to unear th are those that are considered negative as compared to any positives that may arise from this research. In conducting the research, the children interviewed will be required to view two advertisements, played in the course of a popular program, which will be about food items or drinks, in this case a sugary product and a non-sugary product. The advertisements will each run for 60 seconds and then the questions will be asked in order to assess which is the choice for the children by qualified interviewers. As a way of eliminating bias, the participants in the experiment will not be required to communicate with each other about their views during its course. The data that will be collected will be analyzed using the Chi-squared Interaction Detector (CHAID). The method is commonly used to analyze the reaction between different variables. CHAID tends to be more flexible than more traditional statistical methods where often more stringent underlying assumptions need to be met. With a C HAID analysis, both the dependent and independent variables can be nominal (categorical), ordinal (ordered categories ranked from small to large), or interval (a scale). Another important feature is that CHAID analysis displays the modeling results in an easy-to-interpret tree diagram. This is extremely useful when having to explain complex analysis in a clear and non-technical way. Here, the use of two different advertisements in the middle of a program will help analyze the relationship between advertisements and the reaction that the sample will have. The advantage of this method is simply that the data will easily be visually projected for interpretation. The sample size chosen is also meant to assist with the ease of interpretation; however, ultimately we would like to use a much larger sample size to get more accurate results. We hope to find a correlation to advertisements targeting children and the children’s choice of products after viewing the ads. Discussion The si mple use of persuasion is a very powerful tool for advertisers as it creates an illusion which appeals to the individual’s need for the product being advertised. This fact is even more compelling to children who do not have the power of reasoning as the marketer. Ultimately, the child becomes persuaded that the product is important even if its value is not. Children have a very photographic memory and can remember vividly what was depicted in an advertisement that was directed at them. Therefore, there is need for control of advertisers as the results of the child being persuaded do not always lead to his/her development. The research that was earlier conducted depicted that the advertisement of products to children does not always yield positive results and most of it has been focused on the child’s health; most notably obesity (Dittmann, 2006). The other consideration is not only on the negatives but also on the positives that have been made. However, this research i s meant to show that not only are the consequences of these advertisements on the health of the child but they are also psychological as well as mental. The fact that Harris (2008) have found that brand loyalty is created when people are of a tender age and still manifests itself in their adult lives shows that there is a psychological aspect to advertisements that is subconscious. There are many products in the market that are targeted at children. Nowadays, there has been a digital revolution that has been coupled by many videos and video games in the market. There is a direct relationship between the playing of violent video games and the manifestation of violence in the lives of these children while growing up. Traditionally, sports such as wrestling entertainment used to be the motivators of violence but the content could be altered so that warnings were issued and caution was taken. In the present days, video games are played inside the homes where content may not be censored as parenting habits have also changed. There has been increase in violence in schools some even bearing fatalities like the shootings in schools seen in the US and elsewhere. The advertisement of violence in the social and other media has a direct cause to the violence by children. This research is aimed at producing facts to this effect. A large part of the problem arises due to the privatization of the media that propagates the advertisements by the children. There are numerous numbers of these children that are owners of computers connected to the internet and at their private rooms in houses far from the eyes of adults or guardians who can explain or prevent the messages of the advertisements. This leads to a society that is devoid of guardians and proper role models which has very negative consequences. The recent trend of celebrity marriages that last for only a few days or even hours and advertised on social media leads to the belief that this is the way the world operates in children. The mental consequences and psychological ones are extremely bad and the most alarming thing is that advertisers use psychological research to make their messages even more persuasive. There are several limitations that may constrain the furthering of this research. The most notable is the lack of a substantial budget in order to draw on a larger sample and in more areas with different social-economic dynamics. The research is mainly based on a small sample that may not be accurately representative of the population. The other limitation is that the time needed may be substantial in order to come up with a detailed research that factors the growth in technology over a given period of time. For this kind of research to be applicant in global situations there is need to observe a large sample over an extended period of time so as to also record other variables that might change the behavior of the children after watching advertisements. Conclusion Undoubtedly, advertisement s have a major influence on the marketing of products to the end users. The markets are so saturated that the end result is segmentation where a given company focuses a single product to appeal to a given set of people rather than to the whole population. This has given rise to different kind of advertisements aimed at children and adolescents. In the research to be conducted, the influence that these advertisements have will be measured in children between the age of 8 and 9. The previous researches conducted have tried to make relationships between advertisements and children with very many hypotheses proven. Here, we will attempt to prove that indeed advertisements do negatively affect the choices that children make and this has led to an unhealthy nation. References Dittmann, M. (2006). Protecting children from advertising. APAs Council of Representatives supports a task forces call for stricter regulations on ads geared to kids. Vol 35, No. 6. Harris, J. (2008). A Crisis in the Marketplace: How Food Marketing Contributes to Childhood Obesity and What Can Be Done. Annual Review of Public Health, 30:211-25. Web. Hawkes, C. (2006). Marketing Food To Children: Changes In The Global Regulatory Environment 2004-2006. International Food Policy Research Institute, World Health Organisation. Institute of Medicine (2006). Food Marketing to Children and Youth: Threat or Opportunity. Web. Jennifer L. H. (2006). Priming Effects of Television Food Advertising on Eating Behavior. Yale: Yale University. Montgomery, K. Chester, J. (2009). Interactive Food and Beverage Marketing: Targeting Adolescents in the Digital Age. Journal of Adolescent Health, S18-S29. Web.

Simple Créer (to Create) Verb Conjugations in French

Simple 'Crà ©er' (to Create) Verb Conjugations in French In French, the verb  crà ©er  means to create. When you want to change it to another tense like created or creating, you will need to conjugate it. The good news is that this verb is relatively straightforward and similar to the majority of French verbs. Conjugating the French Verb  Crà ©er French verb conjugations are different than those in English. When conjugating a French verb, we must change the verb ending to match both the subject pronoun and the desired tense. Doing this can be confusing for French students, but it becomes easier with each new verb you learn. Crà ©er  is a  regular -ER verb  and it follows a very common verb conjugation pattern. Simply pair the subject pronoun with the appropriate tense needed for your sentence. For instance, I created is jai crà ©Ãƒ © and we will create is nous crà ©erons. Practicing these in context will help with memorization. Subject Present Future Imperfect je crà ©e crà ©erai crà ©ais tu crà ©es crà ©eras crà ©ais il crà ©e crà ©era crà ©ait nous crà ©ons crà ©erons crà ©ions vous crà ©ez crà ©erez crà ©iez ils crà ©ent crà ©eront crà ©aient The Present Participle of  Crà ©er The  present participle  of  crà ©er  is  crà ©ant.  This acts as a verb, though it can also become a gerund, adjective, or noun in some contexts. The Past Participle and Passà © Composà © A  common way to express the past tense created in French is with the  passà © composà ©. To construct this, begin with the subject pronoun and the proper conjugate of the  auxiliary verb  avoir. Then, add the  past participle  crà ©Ãƒ ©. As an example, I created is jai crà ©Ãƒ © and we created is nous avons crà ©Ãƒ ©. Notice how  ai  and  avons  are conjugates of  avoir  and that the past participle does not change. More Simple  Crà ©er  Conjugations The subjunctive verb mood will be used when the verb is uncertain. Similarly, the conditional implies that something may not happen unless something else also happens. The passà © composà © and imperfect subjunctive are primarily literary forms and are often found in writing. While you may not use all these forms, its important to at least know about them. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Passà © Simple Imperfect Subjunctive je crà ©e crà ©erais crà ©ai crà ©asse tu crà ©es crà ©erais crà ©as crà ©asses il crà ©e crà ©erait crà ©a crà ©Ãƒ ¢t nous crà ©ions crà ©erions crà ©Ãƒ ¢mes crà ©assions vous crà ©iez crà ©eriez crà ©Ãƒ ¢tes crà ©assiez ils crà ©ent crà ©eraient crà ©Ãƒ ¨rent crà ©assent To express  crà ©er  in the imperative form  is easy. Keep things short and sweet for these assertive sentences and skip the subject pronoun. Rather than tu crà ©e, use crà ©e alone. Imperative (tu) crà ©e (nous) crà ©ons (vous) crà ©ez

Poof Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Poof - Essay Example First, it is evident that the play depicts men as traditionally violent and dictatorial especially against their wives and members of the female gender. Nottage depicts this from the first scene of the play with the violent shouting from Samuel commanding his wife to disappear. In this case, it is evident that the play depicts Samuel as a traditional man who abuses his wife all through despite the seriousness of what he identifies as mistakes. The traditional role of women doing everything for their men is evident whereby Samuel expects his wife to do all her chores and he cannot even engage in simple tasks such as picking up the shirts he will wear the following day (Nottage, n.d.). in doing this, Nottage appears to advance the traditional role of women as being ‘helpers’ to their husbands with their husbands playing a superior role than women, even in a society whereby women are increasingly competing with their male counterparts in various fields that were previously deemed as a forte for their male counterparts. Revisiting Loureen’s reaction following the disappearance of Samuel, it is evident that the play associates women with the traditional roles of child caring and housekeeping as the primary functions that women should play in a relationship, and most importantly in a marriage. Loureen tells her husband that he promised to be good once he came back and asks him to come back so that the two could sit down and iron out their issues. She thinks that she is responsible for the disappearance of her husband despite cursing him at the beginning of the play, which is indication that she has accepted her traditional female role, which is a theme that Nottage advances throughout the play. To some extent, the play appears to support the traditional aspect of women accepting to undergo abuse by their husband while accepting blame for situations that they did not have control over the outcome. In this case, women appear to be submissive to their husbands. The character of Florence, who is Loureen’s upstairs neighbor, further advances the traditional role of women as being dutiful to their husbands and being subordinates to their husbands. Her first expression after hearing of the purported murder was a feeling of pure illusion since she could not imagine that a woman had the capacity to confront their husband leave alone committing murder and killing their husbands. In this case, Nottage identifies women as traditionally powerless to their male counterparts with wives not given a chance to confront their husbands and express their emotions while disagreeing with the behavior of their husbands. In

Team Leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Team Leadership - Assignment Example Harnessing these and getting them to work in tandem is the most difficult thing as it involves convincing people to forego their differences for the good of the company. Not everyone can do this, and this is the reason why companies have different positions, which mandate occupants to mobilize those under them. Those assuming these positions are referred to as team leaders, team leaders are mandated with the responsibility of mobilizing team members. They should also work towards a defined goal which may be either the company’s goal or a means to a company goal. Team leadership, on the other hand, is not about an individual it is about a process, a process which can be led by either one of the team members or can also be led from the outside. In fact, there are four potential sources of team leadership; formal internal leadership, formal external leadership, informal internal leadership and informal external leadership. This brief insight into team relations and team leadership is important in evaluating the various problems facing Global-tech Company where I happen to work. In the past few months, there have been continuous wrangles within the company teams. This is alarming as the effects of these misunderstandings will soon spill over to the company performance. This is worrying because business has been exemplary given the ensuing economic conditions. The ones active and very motivated teams have slowed down and their morale has taken a dip; differences have emerged on what is wrong and what is right in regard to culture and communication. There are also technical differences like utilization of technological equipment. Well and beyond these challenges employees have also become selfish and all these challenges have made it impossible for people to relate well.

Trademark Dilution Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Trademark Dilution - Assignment Example As a result brand identity is an important part of the company. There comes a time however, when newer companies secure trademarks that are almost identical to those that are already more established. Think of a scenario for instance where two or more schools share the same uniform. This interference with trademarks can be called by different names but the most relevant to the topic we are about to discuss is dilution. Dilution was the subject if great controversy at the time of its founding. The idea is that there are large companies that wish to protect their already established trademarks. Therefore the best thing for them is to support the passing of dilution clauses into law to deny newer entrants the opportunity to try and make money from establishing their trademarks along the standards already set by the established brands. This paper shall seek to study the history and current state of trademark dilution. There shall be case studies that are analyzed so as to show how trademark dilution has evolved through rulings and also legislation. Another important aspect of trademark dilution is whether or not in reality, trademar4ks prevent such uncouth behavior as the industry is trying to prevent. Of course it is one thing to cry foul about trademarks and quite another to establish their effectiveness. The reason why this is the case is primarily because creative departments in companies develop novel means to reciprocate the efforts and products of other companies. Trademark dilution is the United States for instance is a fairly recent phenomenon bearing in mind that the necessary legislation was passed in 1995. That was the year that the Federal Trademark Dilution act was passed. It sought to protect large companies against the ‘gradual whittling away’ of renowned brands by new entrants1. This was an effort to protect big business at the expense of upcoming businesses. This, as the more fashion conscious will note, is a famous fashion brand. The

The Issues Of The Sexual Morality Sociology Essay

The Issues Of The Sexual Morality Sociology Essay Sexual morality refers to the beliefs and practices by which a culture, group, faith, etc. regulates their members behaviour in matter of sexual activities. Many cultures and religions have rules regarding sexual behavior which they consider moral and it is said by persons in those cultures and religions that those acting outside of those rules are immoral or wrong. These rules sometimes distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and in fertile age) and other activities practiced for the pleasure of sex only (or mainly). In this sense, a concept of sexual morality can be expressed in any of the possible directions, and groups exist that recommend restrictive behaviours as well as groups that recommend totally free self-determination, as well as a variety of intermediate positions. The respective efficacy of these rules depends on the social position of the group that develops them, on its eventual political representativity, on its relationships with the laws of the related country. Views on sexual morality have varied greatly over time and from culture to culture. Usually, they derive from religious beliefs, but some writers have pointed out that social and environmental conditions play a part in the development of a given societys views on sexual morality. In Western pluralistic societies of the 20th and 21st centuries, there often exists debate on not only whether there is a common morality, but on whether it is right to expect such a common view. In most western societies, laws allowing a wide range of sexual relationships between consenting adults are the norm, although that legal range varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The debate thus often includes a sub-argument of what is legal vs. what is moral. In previous centuries and in many non-western cultures of the 20th and 21st centuries, there has been less room for debate. This does not mean, however, that views on sexual morality have ever been homogenous. For example, in Hellenic society, homosexual behavior was often encouraged and accepted as part of the socialization and upbringing of young men, especially those in the military. These relationships were in addition to heterosexual relationships entered into for the establishment of families and the production of progeny so that property would be inherited and kept within a larger kinship group. The importance of the kin-group and the maintenance of its property was such that, under certain circumstances, Athenian law allowed an uncle to marry his niece in order to keep family property together. It could be therefore argued that the needs of the family constituted a higher morality that helped to define the sexual mores of the society as a whole. In Roman society, sexual morality concentrated more on the social status of those involved, and their taboos concentrated on high-status men committing any kind of sexual act that was thought of as passive or submissive. Providing that the sexual act was dominant in nature, and the man had a high social status Roman society made little distinction between the type of sexual partner and type of sexual act. Another example is the contrast between traditional European and traditional Asian or African views of permitted familial relationships. British law and custom, for example, frequently forbade intermarriage between those related by marriage. However, in rural regions of India, Nepal, and surrounding nations, fraternal polyandry, in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman, is culturally accepted. Likewise, European mores generally advocate monogamy strongly. Polygamy is widely practiced by many societies throughout Asia and Africa, and polyandry is the accepted norm in a few Indian and African societies. Moreover , exual ethics (also referred to as sexual morality) refers to those aspects of ethics that deal with issues arising from all aspects of sexuality and human sexual behavior. Broadly speaking, sexual ethics relates to community and personal standards relating to the conduct of interpersonal relationships, and deals with issues of consent, sexual relations before marriage and/or while married, including issues of marital fidelity and premarital and non-marital sex, issues related to sexuality, questions about how gender and power are expressed through sexual behavior, questions about how individuals relate to society, and questions about how individual behavior impacts public health concerns. OBJECTIVES To know the reality of the world and act accordingly To have the knowledge before being affected by sexual morality To be able to care for others and know their rights To help prevent more sexual morality victims directly or indirectly EXPLANATION Sexual Morality In A Nutshell Sexual morality refers to the beliefs and practices by which a culture, group, faith, etc. regulates their members behaviour in matter of sexual activities. Many cultures and religions have a sexual morality that they would like to apply even to non adherents; sometimes force has been used in spreading concepts of morality. These rules sometimes distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and in fertile age) and other activities practiced for the pleasure of sex only (or mainly). In this sense, a concept of sexual morality can be expressed in any of the possible directions, and groups exist that recommend restrictive behaviours as well as groups that recommend totally free self-determination, as well as a variety of intermediate positions. The respective efficacy of these rules depends on the social position of the group that develops them, on its eventual political representativity, on its relationships with the laws of the related country. Views on sexual morality have varied greatly over time and from culture to culture. Usually, they derive from religious beliefs, but some writers have pointed out that social and environmental conditions play a part in the development of a given societys views on sexual morality. In Western pluralistic societies of the 20th and 21st centuries, there often exists debate on not only whether there is a common morality, but on whether it is right to expect such a common view. In most western societies, laws allowing a wide range of sexual relationships between consenting adults is the norm, although that legal range varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. The debate thus often includes a sub-argument of what is legal vs. what is moral. In previous centuries and in many non-western cultures of the 20th and 21st centuries, there has been less room for debate. This does not mean, however, that views on sexual morality have ever been homogenous. For example, in Hellenic society, homosexual behavior was often encouraged and accepted as part of the socialization and upbringing of young men, especially those in the military. These relationships were in addition to heterosexual relationships entered into for the establishment of families and the production of progeny s o that property would be inherited and kept within a larger kinship group. The importance of the kin-group and the maintenance of its property was such that, under certain circumstances, Athenian law allowed an uncle to marry his niece in order to keep family property together. It could be therefore argued that the needs of the family constituted a higher morality that helped to define the sexual mores of the society as a whole. Another example is the contrast between traditional European and traditional Asian or African views of permitted familial relationships. British law and custom, for example, frequently forbade intermarriage between those related by marriage. However, in rural regions of India, Nepal, and surrounding nations, fraternal polyandry, in which two (or more) brothers marry the same woman, is culturally accepted. Likewise, European mores generally advocate monogamy strongly. However, polygamy is a much more common social pattern worldwide, with some 80 percent of world cultures considering it acceptable. Polygyny is widely practiced by many societies throughout Asia and Africa, and polyandry is the accepted norm in a few Indian and African societies. In the United States, what many conservatives call traditional morality is held to prohibit all non-marital sex, because of the moral belief that sexual relations should occur only between husband and wife. This view of morality thus disapproves of some or all of the followingpremarital, extramarital, and homosexual relationswhether consensual or not. There are people who disagree with this traditional view. Generally they believe that sex is a natural behavior which should be only minimally restricted by legislation or other imposed moralities. Even among the most liberal views of sexual morality in the US, there is generally agreement that involving non-consenting partners (or those unable to give consent legally) in sexual relationships should be restricted and punishable under the law. Social constructions of sex continued to evolve throughout the twentieth century in Western societies. The pioneering surveys conducted by Alfred C. Kinsey and his colleagues (Kinsey et al. 1953; Kinsey, Pomeroy, and Martin 1948) found widespread premarital and extramarital sexual behavior among both men and women. This challenged the popular view that women were not interested in sex, or less interested in it than men. The work of William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) demonstrated that the processes of sexual arousal were similar for men and women, in contrast to the earlier view that they were different. These findings led to what has been termed the eroticization of female sexuality (Seidman 1991), the view that men and women were equally erotic. However, there are some gender differences in sexual behavior. Surveys in the United States (Smith 1991), Britain ( Johnson et al. 1994), and France (Spira et al. 1992) find that men report a larger number of sexual partners than wo men, both lifetime and in the recent past. Studies also find that men are more accepting of sexual activity in casual relationships than are women (Oliver and Hyde 1993). DISCUSSIONS Gender Discrimination In Wikipedia the definition for discrimination is given as the  prejudicial  treatment of an individual based solely on their membership (whether voluntary or involuntary) in a certain group or category. Discrimination is the  actual behavior  towards members of another group. It involves excluding or restricting members of one group from opportunities that are available to other groups.  The  United Nations  explains: Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection.  Discriminatory laws such as  redlining  have existed in many countries. In some countries, controversial attempts such as  racial quotas  have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination. The main discrimination we want to discuss is gender discrimination. The Wikipedia also defines it as the gender discrimination and sexism refers to beliefs and  attitudes  in relation to the  gender  of a person, such beliefs and attitudes are of a social nature and do not, normally, carry any legal consequences.  Sex discrimination, on the other hand, may have legal consequences. Though what constitutes sex discrimination varies between countries, the essence is that it is an adverse action taken by one person against another person that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. Discrimination of that nature in certain enumerated circumstances is illegal in many countries. Currently, discrimination based on sex is defined as adverse action against another person, that would not have occurred had the person been of another sex. This is considered a form of  prejudice  and is illegal in certain enumerated circumstances in most countries. Sexual discrimination can arise in different contexts. For instance an employee may be discriminated against by being asked discriminatory questions during a job interview, or because an  employer  did not hire, promote or wrongfully terminated an employee based on his or her gender, or employers pay unequally based on gender. In an educational setting there could be claims that a student was excluded from an educational institution, program, opportunity, loan, student group, or scholarship due to his or her gender. In the housing setting there could be claims that a person was refused negotiations on seeking a house, contracting/leasing a house or getting a loan based on his or her gender. Another setting where there have been claims of gender discrimination is banking; for example if one is refused credit or is offered unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Another setting where there is usually gender discrimination is when one is refused to extend his or her credit, refused approval of credit/loan process, and if there is a burden of unequal loan terms based on ones gender. Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify different roles for men and women, in some cases giving rise to claims of primary and secondary roles. While there are alleged non-physical differences between men and women, major reviews of the academic literature on gender difference find only a tiny minority of characteristics where there are consistent psychological differences between men and women, and these relate directly to experiences grounded in biological difference.  However, there are also some psychological differences in regard to how problems are dealt with and emotional perceptions and reactions which may relate to hormones and the successful characteristics of each gender during longstanding roles in past primitive lifestyles. Unfair discrimination usually follows the  gender stereotyping  held by a society. The  United Nations  had concluded that women often experience a glass ceiling and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term glass ceiling is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement in employment based on discrimination, especially sex discrim ination. In the  United States  in 1995, the Glass Ceiling Commission, a government-funded group, stated: Over half of all Masters degrees are now awarded to women, yet 95% of senior-level managers, of the top Fortune 1000 industrial and 500 service companies are men. Of them, 97% are white. In its report, it recommended  affirmative action, which is the consideration of an employees gender and race in hiring and promotion decisions, as a means to end this form of discrimination.  In 2008, women accounted for 51% of all workers in the high-paying management, professional, and related occupations. They outnumbered men in such occupations as public relations managers; financial managers; and human resource managers. The  Chinas leading headhunter, Chinahr.com, reported in 2007 that the average salary for white-collar men was 44,000 yuan ($6,441), compared with 28,700 yuan ($4,201) for women. The PwC research found that among FTSE 350 companies in the  United Kingdom  in 2002 almost 40% of senior management posts were occupied by women. When that research was repeated in 2007, the number of senior management posts held by women had fallen to 22%. Transgender  individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them. Nevertheless, the problem of gender discrimination does not stop at trand ender individuals nor with women. Men are often the victim in certain areas of employment as men begin to seek work in office and childcare settings traditionally perceived as womens jobs. One such situation seems to be evident in a recent case concerning alleged YMCA discrimination and a Federal Court Case in Texas.  The case actually involves alleged discrimination against both men and blacks in childcare, even when they pass the same strict background tests and other standards of employment. It is currently being contended in federal court, as of fall 2009, and sheds light on how a workplace dominated by a majority (women in this case) sometimes will seemingly justify wh atever they wish to do, regardless of the law. This may be done as an effort at self-protection, to uphold traditional societal roles, or some other faulty, unethical or illegal prejudicial reasoning. Affirmative action  also leads to white men being discriminated against for entry level and blue collar positions. An employer cannot hire a white man with the same on paper qualifications over a woman or minority worker or the employer will face prosecution. The UNICEF claims on gender discrimination that birth histories and census to-date reveal an unusually high proportion of male births and male children under five in Asia, most notably in India and China, suggesting sex-selecting foeticide and infanticide in the worlds two most populous countries, despite initiatives to eradicate these practices in both countries. More than 115 million children of primary school age do not attend school. For every 100 boys not attending primary school, there are 115 girls in the same situation. Research shows that educated women are less likely to die in childbirth and more likely to send their children to school. A UNICEF survey of selected countries finds that on average, children with uneducated mothers are at least twice as likely to be out of primary school than children whose mothers attended primary school. More than 130 million women and girls alive today have been subjected to female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), which can have grave health consequences, including the failure to heal, increased susceptibility to HIV infection, childbirth complications, inflammatory diseases and urinary incontinence. The younger girls are when they first have sex, the more likely it is that intercourse has been imposed on them. According to a World Health Organisation study, 150 million girls and 73 million boys under the age of 18 experienced forced sexual intercourse or other forms of physical and sexual violence in 2002. Globally, 36 per cent of woman between the ages of 20-24 were married or in union before they reached 18. Premature pregnancy and childbirth is often a dangerous consequence of child marriage. An estimated 14 million girls between 15-19 years old give birth every year. If a mother is under 18, her babys chances of dying in the first year of life is 60 percent greater than that of a baby born to a mother over 19. Babies born to mothers under 18 are more likely to suffer from low birth weight, under nutrition and delayed physical and cognitive development. High rates of illiteracy among women prevent them from knowing about the risks of HIV infection and ways to protect themselves.  Elderly women may face double discrimination on the basis of both gender and age. Women tend to live longer than men, may lack control of family resources and can face discrimination from inheritance and property laws. This is what gender discrimination means where the male and female are discriminated in some ways. Pornography Pornography or porn is the portrayal of explicit sexual subject matter for the purposes of sexual excitement and erotic satisfaction. Pornography may use any of a variety of media, ranging from books, magazines, postcards, photos, sculpture, drawing, painting, animatio, sound recordingn, film, video, or video game. However, when sexual acts are performed for a live audience, by definition, it is not pornography, as the term applies to the depiction of the act, rather than the act itself. Thus, portrayals such as sex shows and striptease are not classified as pornography. A pornographic model poses for pornographic photographs. A pornographic actor, also called porn star, acts in pornographic films. In cases where few actor skills are required a performer in pornographic films is also called a pornographic model. Pornography has often been subject to censorship and legal restraints on publication on grounds of obscenity. Such grounds and the very definition of what is or is not pornography have differed in different historical, cultural and national contexts. Over the past few decades, an immense industry for the production and consumption of pornography has grown, with the increasing use of home video and the Internet, as well as the emergence of social attitudes more tolerant of sexual portrayals. Amateur pornography has become widely popular and generally distributed via the Internet for free. MORAL PRESPECTIVE Benefits of Safe sex Sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies can be greatly reduced by practicing safe sex. Even thought no method of safe sex is 100% effective, it is still much better than not using any protection. The methods of protection, while not foolproof, still greatly reduce the risk of contracting a sexually transmitted disease or an unwanted pregnancy. So, if you choose to engage in sexually activity, its always important to use some form of protection. The following will outline some of the options available including abstinence and monogamy, both male and female condoms, and oral contraception. Abstinence is still the best and safest method of preventing both pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. It is 100% effective. Although it is the only foolproof method, it is not the most popular choice. The next best option if you are unwilling to practice abstinence, is to engage in sexual activities with only one person, in a monogamous relationship. A monogamous relationship means that both you and your partner engage in sexual activity with no one but each other. While monogamy is not an effective method of birth control, it does minimize the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases. As long as both you and your partner are free of diseases and remain committed to each other, you will remain free of diseases. Abstinence and monogamy are both highly effective safe sex methods. Abstinence is effective at preventing both pregnancy and diseases while monogamy helps to prevent diseases only. The condom is one of the better methods available for avoiding sexually transmitted diseases. When theyre properly used they are also 97%-98% effective in preventing pregnancy. Male condoms are easily accessible in drug stores, grocery stores, and even vending machines. They are also inexpensive. There are male and female versions of the condom available. Male condoms are more popular. The male condom is a thin sheath, usually made of latex that fits over the penis and acts as a barrier to the exchange of bodily fluids during intercourse. Even if they arent used correctly, they are still very effective in preventing pregnancy (88%-90% effective). So even though they are effective, they are still not 100% reliable. The risk still exists, however small, of getting pregnant or contracting a sexually transmitted disease. The female condom is a polyurethane sheath that lines the entire vagina. The closed end is inserted into the vagina and the open end remains outside the body. Its been available only since the 1990s and is not as readily available at the male condom. If you can find it, you will also pay more for it, since it costs more than a male condom. It is however, just as effective as the male condom in preventing pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. There are oral contraceptives available as well that are very effective in preventing pregnancy. These however, do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases. An oral contraceptive is a pill that is taken daily which uses hormones to prevent pregnancy. If used correctly, the pill is 97-99% effective. As with any drug, there are side effects that come along with pill usage. Most of these side effects are mild. Some side effects include weight changes, nausea, irritability and breast tenderness. Even though these arent severe, they can be avoided altogether. Today there are numerous varieties of pills on the market. Talk to your doctor and find out which is best for you. Again, while oral contraceptives are effective against preventing pregnancy, they do not work against contracting sexually transmitted diseases. If you are not sure that your partner is free of disease, you should consider using another form of safe sex method as a back up to prevent these diseases. If you want to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, it is best to take all the measure you can to practice safe sex. So while abstinence is the only 100% effective method against pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, there are other options out there to explore that offer good benefits. Monogamy is effective in protection against sexually transmitted diseases, while condoms and birth control pills are effective against unwanted pregnancies. Safer Sex (Safe Sex) at a Glance can reduces our risk of getting a sexually transmitted disease (STD), using condoms makes vaginal or anal intercourse safer sex, using condoms or other barriers makes oral sex safer sex, having sex play without intercourse can be even safer sex, and safer sex can be very pleasurable and exciting. CONCLUSION As a conclusion the major change in the discourse about sex is the uncoupling of sex from marriage. As sexual gratification became accepted as an end in itself, people began to challenge the belief that intimate sexual activity should be limited to marriage. A liberal discourse emerged, which argued that sexual intimacy involving consenting people who are not married nor planning to marry is acceptable. In the 1970s, some argued that extramarital sexual intimacy is acceptable if the spouse approves (ONeill and ONeill 1972). This discourse led to expansion of available sexual lifestyles, including nonmarital relationships, cohabitation, and open marriage. Since the mid-1960s, in the United States and elsewhere in the West, a minority discourse has developed that separates sex from love. According to this view, engaging in sexual intimacy for physical pleasure, or to express affection for ones partner, is legitimate. This discourse is the basis of a best-selling sexual advice book of the 1970s, The Joy of Sex (Comfort 1972), and its sequel, The New Joy of Sex (Comfort 1991). This discourse views male and female as essentially equal in sexual potential and in the right to sexual gratification. It challenges the double standard that sexual intimacy outside marriage or a committed relationship is acceptable for men but not for women. This discourse is consistent with the view that sex need not be limited to heterosexual couples. Thus, it facilitated the movement toward acceptance of casual heterosexual and homosexual contacts and living in committed gay and lesbian relationships. The most visible change in the United States and other Western cultures since the mid-1970s is the increasing explicitness of public discourse about sexuality. Explicit sexual representations are found in newspapers, magazines, novels, and films. The individuals desire for sexual fulfillment is used to sell lipstick, colognes, beer, clothing, travel, and automobiles. Personal advertisements, singles magazines, and dating services cater to the desire to find the (nearly) perfect spouse or the perfect sexual partner. The sex industry provides lubricants, vibrators, erotic clothing, and explicit videos to people seeking sexual fulfillment. Thus, stimuli associated with arousal are almost everywhere, creating a culture in which the sexual is ever-present. This sexualization of the culture undoubtedly contributes to the occurrence of sexual activity in places and among persons formerly prohibited.